_Maize Genetics Cooperation Newsletter_ 67 (1993): 98.

PUSA, BIHAR, INDIA
Rajendra Agricultural University

Antiquity of maize in India
--M. Kumar and J. K. S. Sachan

   Post-Columbian introduction of maize into India by the 
Portuguese in the 16th century or later has been accepted 
by most of the maize workers.  However, the peculiar 
features of maize being grown in remote northeastern 
Himalayan [NEH] tracts adjoining Burma and Tibet have 
stimulated an interesting discussion among maize 
workers on the possible pre-Columbian introduction of 
maize in these hilly tracts of the Himalayas.  This 
curiosity has led to extensive work on various aspects 
of the NEH maize.  Some observations on ethno-botany 
(Stonor and Anderson, 1949; Marszewski, 1968, 1978), 
plant type (Mukherjee et al., 1971; Singh, 1977, 1989; 
Sachan and Sarkar, 1982), pachytene analysis (Gupta and 
Jain, 1971; Dash et al. 1986, Pande et al., 1988; Kumar 
and Sachan, 1992), chromosome banding (Mohan and Raut, 
1980; Sachan et al., 1982; Pande et al., 1983) and 
biochemical assays (Pereira et al., 1983) have been 
reported.
   Jeffreys (1965) has suggested that maize had been 
introduced by the Arabs and not by the Portuguese, 
in the pre-Columbian era.  The Indian names for maize, 
like Makka jouri (Mecca sorghum), Makka jola (Mecca 
sorghum), Makkai (grain of Mecca), Mukka Cholam (Mecca 
sorghum) etc. provide evidence for such a hypothesis.  
Kuleshov (1928) reported that varieties similar to 
those described from the Naga tribes are widespread 
in Central Asia from Persia and Turkestan to Tibet 
and Siberia.  However, Ashraf (1990, personal 
communication) has discounted such a diffusion of maize 
in India by the Arabs, and instead cited the mention 
of maize as "Markataka" in ancient Sanskrit religious 
texts, 'Vishnu Purana' and 'Apasthamba Saruta Sutra'.  
Etymology of this terminology and subsequent derivation 
of the term "Mak" or "Maka" appears to be convincing 
(Ashraf, 1990).  Further depiction of so-called 
maize "ears" in Indian sculptures in Somnathpur and 
other Hoysala temples of 12-13 century A.D. as well 
as some other older Hindu and Buddhist temples 
has been cited (.Johannessen and Parker, 1989) as 
evidence of pre-Columbian diffusion of maize in 
India.  However, depiction of maize "ears" in Hoysala 
temples was refuted by Sachan and Payak (Nature, 1989).
   Stonor and Anderson's (1949) contention of uniqueness 
of maize grown by various ethnic groups of erstwhile greater 
Assam is further supported by the presence of four new 
knob forming positions at 1Lb, 2Lt, and 9Lb in these 
NEH strains (Kumar, MNL60, 1992) which are hitherto 
unknown in maize of the West Hemisphere.  It is 
interesting to note that these knob positions, though 
absent in maize, are present in Mexican teosinte.  
Similarly, some new knob positions in two Sikkim 
Primitive strains, SP1 and SP2, have been identified 
earlier also (Gupta and Jain, 1971).  These knob 
positions, 7L, 8S, 8L and 10La, were not present in evolved 
varieties.  Hence, it can be concluded that there were 
two sets of maize introductions in NEH (a) in 
prehistoric times through a sea/land route much before 
the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, and (b) 
in the post-Columbian era by Christian missionaries, 
material which essentially resembles Caribbean germplasm.  
Presence of both low and high knob number groups of maize 
strains in the NEH region of India further suggests 
two possible lineages (a) Nal-Tel-Chapalote complex, 
b) Confite Morocho and to some extent Palomero Toluqueno.
   The pre-Columbian introduction must have taken place 
through trans-Pacific routes.  Otherwise, there would have 
been traces of this kind of maize along the trade routes 
during the post-Columbian era.  The absence of such 
traces suggests that pre-Columbian introduction of 
maize into the Himalayan region might have taken place 
through routes across southeast Asia and the Pacific 
islands (Sachan et al., 1978; Ashraf, 1985, 1987).
   Deep involvement of maize in the customs, tradition 
and economy of tribal people in the centre NEH further
 supports the prehistoric introduction of maize in 
these areas (Thapa, 1966).  Also two written records, 
namely Tien, non Pen tS'ao (Chinese) and Vamsavali 
(Nepalese) support the view that maize was 
cultivated in the Arunanchal, Bhutan, Sikkim and North 
Burma in the pre-Columbian time (Marszewski, 1978).


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